Necessary Convergence Communication Essay

A Theory of Dyadic Social Interaction and Meanings Michelle Miller-Day In this paper, the author proposed and describes a theory of the social construction of meaning in dyadic communicative interaction. The author argues that necessary convergence communication is a theoretical framework useful for explaining how power may influence the process of meaning construction in interpersonal communication. This essay describes the features of this theoretical framework and provides theoretical suppositions for future empirical testing. Child:Mom, look at the blue package! Mother: It’s not blue, it’s teal. Child:It looks like blue to me. Mother: It’s not though. It’s got green in it too, so it’s teal. Later that day Friend: Oh, that’s a pretty package. The blue matches your shirt. Child:It’s not blue, it’s teal. To many of us this scene is not unusual. Children often learn from elders what any given symbol â€Å"means† and once children learn these meanings they incorporate them into their cognitive schemata. According to Piaget’s (1972, 1954) theory of cognitive development, from approximately ages 4-7 children are in an intuitive phase where they can grasp logical concepts, but reality is not yet firm and is often dictated by authority figures. The role of authority figures to shape constructions of reality certainly does not end in childhood. Social constructionists such as Berger and Luckmann (1966) argue that individuals â€Å"together produce a human environment, with the totality of its socio-cultural and psychological formations and understandings; social meanings are a human product â€Å"(p. 52). It is not unusual, say, for an abusive romantic partner to convince his or her partner that the abuse is deserved or symbolic of care or even love. The dyadic construction of acts of abuse as signifying love or care may not e clearly understood by others outside the relational dyad, yet perceptions of abusive behavior as acts of love are common in abusive interpersonal relationships, along with sacrificing one’s own interpretation of events so as not to lose the affection of the partner (Woods, 1999). In fact, in a recent episode of the popular television show Law and Order: Special Victims Unit (Denoon & Platt, 2004) a teenager was placed in foster care due to a mother’s complete and utter dominance over t he child, with the episode focusing on the control the mother had over how her offspring interpreted the world around him. The psychologist in the episode did not have a name for this process of maternal domination, but compared the teenager to a â€Å"puppet,† merely appropriating his mother’s interpretations of the world out of fear; the fear of losing her love, protection and their relational structure. Although this essay does not focus on children or abusive relationships specifically, it outlines a theory addressing the social construction of meanings in dyadic communicative interaction wherein there is disequilibrium between members in that process. Berger (2005), in his review of the interpersonal communication up until the 21st century, pointed out that very few interpersonal communication scholars have developed theories addressing this central tenet of communication –meaning. His review argued that for the field to move forward interpersonal communication researchers should look more at interaction routines and the process of meaning-making between interactants. Around the same time as this review was being written, Koerner and Fitzpatrick (2002) published an article in Communication Theory arguing for a similar need for research examining intersubjectivity, meaning, and interactivity in the area of family communication. They argued the following: â€Å"†¦ a complete explication of family communication needs to consider both intersubjectivity and interactivity (Fitzpatrick & Ritchie, 1993). Intersubjectivity refers to the sharing of cognitions among participants in a communication event, whereas interactivity refers to the degree to which the symbol creation and interpretation are linked. ,Interactivity refers to the way that a family maintains its own structure through patterns of family members’ responses to each other’s communicative acts† (p. 73, Koerner & Fitzpatrick, 2002). Correspondingly, Miller-Day (2004) also presented a Necessary Convergence Communication (NCC) theory which focused on both intersubjectivi ty and interactivity in family member interactions, while addressing issues of power and dominance involved in the process of meaning-making between communicators. At this junction, in response to these calls for theoretical development in the area of meaning construction and dyadic social interaction in the fields of interpersonal and family communication, and building on the ideas introduced by Koerner and Fitzpatrick (2002), this essay will briefly review the original ideas of Miller-Day’s (2004) Necessary Convergence Communication (NCC) theory, elaborate on them, and then discuss how this framework might be a workable mid-range theory to assist communication scholars understand how the construct of power or dominance may influence the meaning construction process in interpersonal communication. A theory is a lens through which to examine human interaction and theories have four functions–description, explanation, prediction, and change (Griffin, 2000; Littlejohn & Foss, 2005). The foundation of a theory is description and as Wood (2004) points out, â€Å"before we can figure out how something works, we must describe it† (p. 32). Therefore, the first task of building new theory is to describe its features. This essay provides a description of necessary convergence communication and identifies specific features that may be empirically tested. An Introduction to Necessary Convergence Communication Miller-Day (2004) argued that necessary convergence is a form of intersubjectivity that occurs during a pattern of interactivity when one communicator is dominant and the other submissive. When convergence of meaning occurs, meaning coordination tends to be coercive rather than cooperative with the dominant partner’s interpretive frame privileged over the submissive partner’s, leading to unequal contributions to the process of meaning coordination. Author Ayn Rand (1993) referred to this type of process in her novel The Fountainhead. Rand argued that some individuals tend to be â€Å"second-handers†Ã¢â‚¬â€people who don’t judge for themselves, who just repeat what others close to them say, embrace it, and make it their own. Miller-Day’s (2004) argument suggests that when the relational schema for the submissive partner is based on conditional regard—that is, she or he believes that acceptance in the relationship (e. g. , receipt of emotional resources) is contingent on meaning convergence; the submissive partner will converge with the dominant partner’s meanings for relational maintenance purposes. As discovered in Miller-Day’s family communication research (2004) and Miller (1995) and illustrated in the Law and Order episode mentioned earlier in this essay, not to converge with a dominant partner’s interpretation of symbols or events in any transaction would risk already precarious acceptance and approval in the relationship. An interpretive frame is defined here as cognitive structure that contains mental representations of meanings; the process of constructing meaning activates interpretive frames. Necessary infers that convergence is perceived as essential to achieving a certain result, and convergence indicates a tendency toward one point (Miller-Day, 2004). Thus, to obtain relational approval and avoid rejection, the submissive partner will accommodate the dominant partner by assimilating his or her interpretive frame. Within this model, convergence is relationally adaptive. This introduction to NCC as a theoretical framework offers an overview. But, to fully understand how this theory may be applied more generally to interpersonal relationships, I will elaborate on this theoretical framework, present the assumptions linked to it, describe its characteristics, and provide some theoretical statements for empirical testing. A-Priori Theoretical Assumptions Communication Is an Emergent, Creative Activity through Which Meanings are Coordinated Via Interpretive Schemata People approach the world through processes of interpretation. As human social animals we are in a constant state of interpreting and managing meanings, and interpreting meanings is an interdependent process. The assumption is that meanings are not inherent in objects, but instead arises out of social interaction. During social interaction, meanings are coordinated through interpretive schemata—mental structures consisting of organized knowledge about relationships. Interpretive schemata represent accumulated knowledge—the sum of past experiences—which help an individual interpret, understand, and predict the outcomes of interactions with others (Burleson, Metts, ; Kirch, 2000; Cragan ; Shields, 1998; Koerner ; Fitzpatrick, 2002). Moreover, interpretive schemata include expectations about what should happen in a given situation and serve to guide behavior. Interpretive schemata specific to relationships—relationship schemata—influence the â€Å"encoding and decoding of information, the inferences and evaluations people make †¦ and ultimately their interpersonal behavior† in relationships (Koerner ; Fitzpatrick, 2002, p. 80). This assumption presumes that the process of â€Å"making meaning† activates interpretive frames. Communicators then coordinate their meaning systems as filtered through these frames and then negotiate agreement. Understanding between the members builds intersubjectivity and hopefully leads to consensus (Crotty, 1998; Solomon, Dillard, ; Anderson, 2002). Implicit in this assumption are claims of coordination and negotiation. Coordination implies a state of equal rank, equal power, and harmonious order, whereas negotiation suggests that communicators confer with one another in order to reach an agreement. Coordination involves collaboration of all communicating partners. Communication Enacts Relationships The state of being in a â€Å"relationship† is inherently a communication process and must be understood as a series of transactions in which messages are exchanged. Relationships are formed across repeated transactions, with each new transact adding new information to the one that came before, building a cumulative database of information about the relationship (Burleson et al. 2000; Duck, 1992; Guerrero, Anderson, ; Afifi, 2001). Transactions are units of interaction affecting both interactants and carrying commentary on the interactant’s relationship. As Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson (1967) pointed out, each message (both verbal and nonverbal) carries information at two levels—the content level and the relationship level. The relationship level enacts the current state of the relationship and provides information about how the communicators see each other, t hemselves, and their relationship. Communicative Transactions in Close Personal Relationships Have Implications for Personal and Relational Identities Relational members encode and decode information about themselves as well as for their partner, extrapolating this information to the relational unit (Aron ; Aron, 1986). Within this framework, the self is conceptualized as inseparable from dynamic interaction, with each transaction contributing to both self- and relational knowledge. Early work by Mead (1934) identified the centrality of essage exchange in personal identity management. More recent work in relational communication points out that both personal and relational identities are cocreated communicatively within the context of relationship (Wilmot, 1995). Personal identity development is really the unfolding of the self while retaining relational ties; identities are constituted and managed through relationships, not to their exclusion (Adams ; Marshall, 1996). Relational Culture Shapes Interpretive/Relational Schemata Relational cultures consist of shared meaning systems, routinized patterns of interaction, and norms that structure members’ roles and behaviors (Wood, 2000). These cultural norms shape relational schemata (Koerner ;Fitzpatrick, 2002), and these schemata are socialized across the developmental trajectory of the relationship. Socialization involves the â€Å"social and communicative processes through which cultural knowledge, resources and practices are made available and internalized† by cultural members (Burleson et al. , 2000, p. 35). As Entman (1993) demonstrated, culture is the stock of commonly evoked interpretive schemata and culture might be defined as the â€Å"empirically demonstrable set of common interpretive frames exhibited in the discourse and thinking of most people in a relationship† (p. 53). Relational schemata are the mental structures that are socialized within a relational culture, organize knowledge about relationships, and are used to process information relevant to these relationships. Therefore, relational cultures will share common schemata and should be reflected in the communication practices of relational members. Interpersonal Scripts Emerge From Relational Schemata Scripts are one form of communication practice enacted within relationships that emerge from relational schemata (Koerner ; Fitzpatrick, 2002). Relational scripts direct interaction, exemplify relational work, and dictate normative ways of issuing directives and responses. Scripted interactions are often routine, habituated, and overlearned through repetitive practice in the family culture (Sillars, 1995); however, these scripts are useful in directing the â€Å"typical† ways in which an interaction should be handled given the particular relational schema. When relational members become practiced in these roles and memorize their lines, these enactments become scripted. That is, partners may not think about their day-to-day ways of interacting with each other on a conscious level, but they may still tend to communicate in patterned ways with well-defined scripts that enact â€Å"appropriate† relational behavior. These a-priori assumptions are implicit in the theoretical framework of NCC. In summary, they presuppose that relational culture shapes partner’s knowledge of relationships; each partner’s accumulated knowledge of relationships helps her or him to coordinate meanings; patterned or scripted communication behavior emerges from relationship schemata; and this communication behavior is consequential for interpersonal relationships. Characteristics of Necessary Convergence Communication Necessary convergence communication can be captured by describing its three separate characteristics, equilibrium, weighted proportion of meaningfulness, and motivation, and two process dimensions, degree and chronicity (Miller-Day, 2004). These characteristics are illustrated in Fig. 1 and can be assessed in terms of their valence and intensity in any given interpersonal relationship. [Insert Figure 1 about here] Equilibrium When necessary convergence occurs, there tends to be disequilibrium in the relational coordination of meanings. Equilibrium refers to an equality of distribution; however when disequilibrium occurs, there is unequal power to determine meanings in interpersonal interaction. Power is a person’s ability to control valuable resources and is often tied to status. Any type of power such as expert power, legitimate power, or coercive power is relevant to equilibrium as long as the person is in control of resources considered valuable. Control of resources provide the potential for the exercise of power in most relationships, with resources being all knowledge, skills, emotions, words, actions, and materials that are at the disposal of the person. Given the distribution of resources within any specific interpersonal relationship, power might be evaluated by its outcome, which is dominance. Dominance refers to the degree to which a person can influence and impose their will on the other; its counterterm, submission, refers to the degree to which a person gives up influence or yields to the wishes of the other. I think it is important to keep in mind that dominance itself is determined by the submissive response of others. Moreover, as Burgoon, Johnson, and Koch (1998) pointed out, â€Å"While power enables the display of dominance, and dominant behavior may solidify power—though correlated—dominance and power are not interchangeable concepts† (p. 10). According to Miller-Day (2004), when NCC occurs the relational member who has higher status or more power in the relationship (e. g. , parent, teacher, boss, or romantic partner) would be dominant in imposing, rather than cooperatively negotiating, meaning in the relationship. Moreover, as one person’s power to determine meanings increases, the other person’s decreases, this then leads to an unstable situation in which the importance of one partner’s interpretive frame outweighs the partner’s. Weighted Proportion of Meaningfulness The second characteristic of necessary convergence occurs when one partner submits to the unequal distribution in the power to construct meanings in interaction. Dominance requires submission. Consequently, when a lower-status partner submits, she or he affords the dominant partner’s meanings more weight—more significance—in the transaction. Developmentally, as most individuals begin to acquire personal authority they naturally become differentiated from parents and others in their life, even as they remain emotionally connected (Nadien ; Denmark, 1999). However, as adults form unique relational cultures, they will develop new connections with others. Some times these relationships are purely social and require accommodation of meanings for social management purposes; for example, in the classroom where a professor does not encourage critical thinking but mandates rote memorization and resists any challenge of information. In this case, students are required to accommodate the professor’s meanings into his or her own understanding (and repeat that on the exam! ). Anyone who has ever been in a classroom with one of these instructors may empathize with students placed in a setting where there is a low tolerance for differentiation in thinking among members. But the case of relational partners where one partner is dominant in most realms of the relationships and the other submissive, there is both a social and emotional connection between partners. In this case, the dominant partner will typically closely monitor any behaviors that signify the submissive partner’s movement toward differentiation (uniqueness outside the relationship), regardless if emotional ties remain undisturbed. If the less powerful partner resists the imposition of meaning and challenges her partner’s construction of meaning in the dyadic interaction, then necessary convergence communication has not occurred. It is the absence of resistance –the convergence–that is a key feature of this kind of communication. According to NCC, the less powerful partner will be motivated to converge because he or she feels it is necessary. Motivation Motivation is a reason for action, an incentive. This theory argues that when there is a compelling reason for convergence, such as is to avoid undermining the relationship or to secure relational acceptance, there is increased motivation to converge with the higher-status partner. When acceptance in the relationship is perceived to be conditional on that convergence, then convergence is perceived as relationally adaptive and the lower-status partner is more likely to perceive convergence as necessary. Necessary convergence, then, might be viewed as a form of secondary control. According to Rosenberg (1990), â€Å"Secondary control is an attempt to accommodate to objective conditions in order to affect a more satisfying fit with those conditions† (p. 147). Although convergence tends not to be explicitly demanded, lower-status partners will perceive it as a condition for relational acceptance. Manipulation of resources in a relationship, such as support, regard, or inclusion, emerged as a significant contributor to asserting dominance in the family relationships observed by Miller-Day (2004). As a form of psychological control, higher-status family members offered and withheld these resources contingent on the convergence of the lower-status member. The manipulation of emotional resources, therefore, was used to assert psychological dominance with the provision or withdrawal of resources providing a compelling motivation for lower-status partner’s convergence. According to NCC, once convergence is perceived to be necessary, and one accommodates the dominant partner’s interpretive frame at the expense of one’s own, two additional characteristics become important when assessing necessary convergence: degree and chronicity. Process Dimensions Degree. The relative intensity or amount of convergence in any given dyadic interaction is important to the process of NCC. The following illustration captures different degrees of convergence. Example: An adult woman and a friend are talking. The friend comments that she likes the woman’s new hairstyle, pulled up on her head with a hair clip. The woman comments that she likes the style too. Soon the adult woman’s mother walks into the room, looks at her adult daughter, and with a tone of disapproval says, â€Å"What have you done to your hair? It looks awful† Under conditions of high convergence, the lower-status woman would change her hairstyle extensively as a result of her mother’s comment, converging with her mother’s interpretation that the style was indeed horrible and altering her original interpretation to â€Å"fit† more closely with her mother’s. If asked by another, she would explain that the hairstyle looked awful so she altered it. Under conditions of moderately high convergence, the lower-status woman would significantly change her hairstyle as a result of her mother’s comment, but just to please her mother or to reduce conflict. The lower-status woman would not alter her own interpretation to fit with her mother’s interpretation; she would merely accommodate the alternative interpretation. Under conditions of moderately low convergence, the lower-status woman might make minor alterations in the hairstyle to integrate both perceptions of what was attractive into one style. Finally, under conditions of low convergence, the lower-status woman might listen to her mother’s comment but keep the style anyway because she likes it. As Miller-Day (2004) comments, there are times when we all perceive that it is just easier, necessary, or politically astute to adjust our interpretations to others’ view of the world. However, when there is extensive accommodation and convergence, obliterating personal interpretative frames constitutive of self, this might negatively influence personal identity. Chronicity. Convergence may be chronic or the pattern of convergence may occur across time and contexts. When lower-status individuals experience repeated failures in negotiating meanings in transactions with a partner across time (e. . , across the life course) and contexts (e. g. , attitudes, values, behaviors), this may instill a generalized expectancy of learned helplessness and â€Å"giving in. † Miller-Day’s (2004) data revealed that women who chronically engaged in necessary convergence had an undefined sense of self and lower self-esteem than women who did not engage in convergence. When boundari es between individuals blur in personal relationships, identities may become undefined and convergence communication becomes the modus operandi. Piaget’s (1972) theory of cognitive development points out that in normal development, both assimilation and accommodation processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life. Assimilation being the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures and accommodation being the process of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from the environment. Necessary convergence communication offers an explanation for those interactions where accommodation becomes the primary means of making sense of the world. Theoretical Suppositions of Necessary Convergence Whereas theoretical assumptions are claims already supported in the research literature, suppositions are considered true or existing but not yet proved. Miller-Day (2004) provided the groundwork for this theory development and I seek to build on that by offering the following suppositions about NCC. I believe these suppositions may provide the necessary building blocks for theory development and offer future directions for empirical testing. Supposition #1 Interactants with more power (e. g. expert, legitimate, reward) in a dyadic social interaction will exert more influence in the construction of meaning than interactants with less power. Coordination of meaning involves power and control and according to this theory meanings can be hijacked. When both partners share moderate levels of power in the relationship, it would be predicted that they would enjoy the equilibrium and co-construction of meaning–shared cognitions with a relatively high degree of match between symbol creation and interpretation. But most theories assume co-construction and equilibrium in sharing cognitions. According to NCC, we need to factor in power status of the interactants in the dyadic construction of meaning. Although studies exist that explore social stratification and power in terms of race, gender, and larger cultural hierarchies (see, e. g. , Altheide, 1995; Lyman, 1994), rarely do scholars explore interpersonal dominance and perceptions of status in their attempts to understand meaning construction. Supposition #2 Under conditions where there is disequilibrium—unequal power—in determining meanings in dyadic social interaction, both partners will afford the dominant partner’s meanings more significance. If one participant in the communication event is dominant in the dyad then it is predicted that connections between symbol and interpretations can be coerced, and the interpretations of the dominant partner are privileged in that communication event. Supposition #3 Converging with a higher-status partner’s assigned meanings will function to maintain the relational identity. The act of convergence is relationally adaptive. The act of convergence in any given interaction will serve to protect the entangled identity of the participants and function to maintain the relational status quo. Partners in dominant-submissive relationships will maintains their relational culture through this patterns of responding to each other’s communicative acts–by one requiring convergence and the other converging. Supposition #4 Among submissive partners, necessary convergence communication will be positively related to an undifferentiated self. Relationships demonstrate varying degrees of tolerance for intimacy and autonomy through interactions. In differentiated relationships partners are provided with autonomy, while maintaining respect and intimacy. In undifferentiated relationships boundaries are regulated, with high demands for connectedness, and ultimately impeding individual identity (Skowron ; Schmitt, 2003; Skowron, 2005). Supposition #5 The manipulation of emotional resources by the dominant partner in relationship with an undifferentiated partner will positively predict necessary convergence communication. It is posited that a communication partner who encourages emotional and psychological dependence through the manipulation of emotional resources (e. g. , love, acceptance) will also coerce a high degree of convergence in the communicative interaction. Respectively, a communication partner who is undifferentiated and submits to the dominant partner will perceive that convergence–or a shared interpretation–is necessary to maintain the relationship. Supposition #6 The more chronic and the greater the degree of convergence, the more likely the submissive partner will have a generalized expectancy of learned helplessness predicting increased risk for depression. The theory of learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975) offers a model to explain human depression in which apathy and submitting to more dominant others prevails, causing the person to fully rely on others. This can result when life experiences cause the individual to understand that their own cognitions are irrelevant. Summary This essay introduced necessary convergence communication as a theoretical framework to help explain how meanings can be hijacked by others in interpersonal relationships. Under certain conditions it is predicted that dominant members in interpersonal relationships may be able to control the coordination of meaning in the relationship, subverting the interpretations of the submissive communication partner. Outlining characteristics of NCC (equilibrium, weighted proportion of meaningfulness, and motivation), two process dimensions (degree and chronicity), and posing 6 testable suppositions about NCC, this essay argues that this mid-range theory may be useful in understanding intersubjectivity and interactivity in dyadic social interaction where one partner is dominant and the other submissive. Whether that partnership is interpersonal or relational, there are implications for this kind of communication in understanding interpersonal influence and possibly even mental health outcomes such as depression. Future Directions There are criteria by which theories are judged to be effective. According to Shaw and Costanzo (1970) and Wright (1998), the following criteria may be used for evaluating theories and future research should examine this theoretical framework to assess if it meets these criteria. First, there is explanatory power—do the suppositions of the NCC theoretical framework enable scholars to explain as much of the communication phenomenon as possible? Next, is the theoretical model parsimonious—does it contain as few suppositions as possible, is it as simple as it can be? Is NCC internally consistent, that is, do the suppositions contradict each other? Does NCC have heuristic potential; does it suggest hypotheses to be tested through additional research? Finally, does NCC promote new understanding and have societal value? This essay outlines the features of NCC and proposes suppositions for empirical testing. Future research should test these suppositions with the potential to falsify and/or delimit this theoretical framework.

Political Theory: Comparing Locke, Rousseau and Plato

Locke: What is the purpose of politics – we could live in the state of nature, we don’t need contract or soverign – life, liberty and property State of nature: men live according to reason and governed by reason – man exists in the state of nature in perfect freedom to do as they want, a state of perfect freedom – not necessarily good or bad, bit is calm and peaceful – men give up some of their freedom to secure the advantages of civilized socity men have the right to protect their freedom (killing if necessary) – bound by the laws of nature – contrast with hobbes: everyone has the right over everything, there exist no private property – Liberty to do as he will, but not harm others Purpose of government: – to secure the natural rights of property rights and liberty – we need law enforcers (soverign), we give power to one person and in doing so this creates a government Private Property: – one establi shed once you mix your labor with good most important because we must create a state because of the scarcity of resource (prisoners dilemma) and the innovation of money – mandatory to own property while living in commonwealth, can mix labour with other peoples resource (compensated) Representation: – ensures the government represents the people – safeguard against oppression – disapproval of absolute monarchies; they are arbitary and represent interest of one – governement must always be for the people 1. government must be desgined to protect the people from the gov . natural rights must be secured Rousseau: – mans main drive is self preservation, but thinks that hobbes and locke overestimated the likelihood of the state of war – men are inherintely good State of Nature: – gives life to general will, so all can live well – men are free and equal, seen as nobel savages, only concerned with immediate needs (hunger, sex, f ear, death) – savages are motivated by self preservation and pity, men are naturally good and don’t want to hurt each other, doesn’t want the state of war believes civilization is what corrupted him, save man is not concerned with materialistic values Morality: differs from locke – in the state of nature there is no reason for law, right or morality because we tend to avoid harming each other because of our natural aversion to pain and suffereing Social Contract: – must have a group that mediates the people and government – we must force people to be free and force people to follow the sovereign Property rights: must mix labor, cannot have more than others because this is a source of inequality – materialistic thinks are making us morally worse – everything that comes from nature is good, everything from society is bad – a source of inequality; creates dependence and jealousy Purpose of government: – to bring the people in harmony – to unite them under the general will representation: – citizens cannot give away their civil duties, they must participate in politics, because the direct democracy must represent the general will Rousseau-Social Contract †¢ The problems of inequality, amor proper, problem of general discontent †¢ Answer to the problem of natural freedom. †¢ Nature provides no standards for determining who should rule †¢ Man is not a political animal, the general will is the foundation of all legitimate authority †¢ All standards of justice and right have the origin in the unique human property of the will or free agency †¢ Liberation of the will from the usual sources that is the true center of gravity of Roussau’s philosophy. †¢ Primacy of the will Given rousseau’s libertarian conception of human nature. †¢ The fundamental problem is how to find a form of association that defends and protects with all the commo n force the person and goods of each associate and by means which each individual uniting with all obeys only himself and remains free. †¢ First part says that the aim of the contract is to protect and defend the common goods of each member. Consistent with Locke’s claims that the purpose of society is protect the security of each members. Rousseau adds a second and more disctinctly original claim. The contract must ensure the conditions for mutual protection, but also in uniting with one another each person obeys only himself and remains as free as he was before. †¢ Isn’t the essence of the social contract giving up part of our natural freedom? †¢ How can we remain as free. †¢ Total alienation of each associate together with all of his rights to the entire community †¢ Total alienation, entire community. †¢ To ensure the terms of the agreements, persons must totally give themselves up for the social contract. †¢ When we alienate ours elves, this must be given to the entire community.This is to ensure that the general will works. †¢ General will is only legitimate sovereign. The famous doctrine of the sovereignty of the people †¢ When we give ourselves over to it, we do nothing more than obey ourselves. Sovereign is not third party, it is simply the people as a whole acting in their collective capacity. †¢ How do we remain as free as we were before? †¢ Formula for freedom or tyranny of the majority? †¢ Only through total alienation do we remain free, because nobody is dependent on the will of another.The new kind of sovereign is the general will, which is the general interest or rational will of the community. Since we all contribute to the shaping of this general will, we do nothing but obey ourselves when we subscribe to this general will. †¢ Not the freedom of the state of nature, but it is a new kind of freedom that he calls â€Å"moral freedom†. †¢ The passage from t he state of nature to the civil state produces a remarkable change in man. Gives our actions a moral quality that they previously lacked. What man loses is his natural liberty, but he gains civil liberty. But, to the proceedings acquisitions or civil liberty, we add moral liberty which makes man truly the master of himself. Obedience that one has prescribed for oneself is freedom, moral liberty. †¢ The moral and political implications are massive. †¢ For Hobbes and Locke: liberty is the sphere of human conduct that is unregulated by the law. Where the law is silent, the citizen is free to do whatever it is he chooses to do. †¢ For Rousseau, law is the very beginning of our freedom, but we are free to the extent that we are participants in the laws that we in turn obey.Freedom means acting in conformity to self-imposed law. †¢ A difference between two very different conceptions of liberty: Liberal vs. Republican †¢ Rousseau makes heroic and unreasonable assum ptions about human nature. Why would we like to get together and engage in debate about political matters. †¢ Human nature and our capacity to engage in debate. Unless everyone is engaged in the process of legislation, there is no way to know that the laws are really an expression of my will. You will find yourselves dependent on the will of others.Freedom from dependence. – The problems of inequality, amor proper, problem of general discontent †¢ Answer to the problem of natural freedom. †¢ Nature provides no standards for determining who should rule †¢ Man is not a political animal, the general will is the foundation of all legitimate authority †¢ All standards of justice and right have the origin in the unique human property of the will or free agency †¢ Liberation of the will from the usual sources that is the true center of gravity of Roussau’s philosophy. †¢ Primacy of the will Given rousseau’s libertarian conception of h uman nature. †¢ The fundamental problem is how to find a form of association that defends and protects with all the common force the person and goods of each associate and by means which each individual uniting with all obeys only himself and remains free. †¢ First part says that the aim of the contract is to protect and defend the common goods of each member. Consistent with Locke’s claims that the purpose of society is protect the security of each members. Rousseau adds a second and more disctinctly original claim. The contract must ensure the conditions for mutual protection, but also in uniting with one another each person obeys only himself and remains as free as he was before. †¢ Isn’t the essence of the social contract giving up part of our natural freedom? †¢ How can we remain as free. †¢ Total alienation of each associate together with all of his rights to the entire community †¢ Total alienation, entire community. †¢ To ensu re the terms of the agreements, persons must totally give themselves up for the social contract. †¢ When we alienate ourselves, this must be given to the entire community.This is to ensure that the general will works. †¢ General will is only legitimate sovereign. The famous doctrine of the sovereignty of the people †¢ When we give ourselves over to it, we do nothing more than obey ourselves. Sovereign is not third party, it is simply the people as a whole acting in their collective capacity. †¢ How do we remain as free as we were before? †¢ Formula for freedom or tyranny of the majority? †¢ Only through total alienation do we remain free, because nobody is dependent on the will of another.The new kind of sovereign is the general will, which is the general interest or rational will of the community. Since we all contribute to the shaping of this general will, we do nothing but obey ourselves when we subscribe to this general will. †¢ Not the freedom of the state of nature, but it is a new kind of freedom that he calls â€Å"moral freedom†. †¢ The passage from the state of nature to the civil state produces a remarkable change in man. Gives our actions a moral quality that they previously lacked. What man loses is his natural liberty, but he gains civil liberty. But, to the proceedings acquisitions or civil liberty, we add moral liberty which makes man truly the master of himself. Obedience that one has prescribed for oneself is freedom, moral liberty. †¢ The moral and political implications are massive. †¢ For Hobbes and Locke: liberty is the sphere of human conduct that is unregulated by the law. Where the law is silent, the citizen is free to do whatever it is he chooses to do. †¢ For Rousseau, law is the very beginning of our freedom, but we are free to the extent that we are participants in the laws that we in turn obey.Freedom means acting in conformity to self-imposed law. †¢ A difference between two very different conceptions of liberty: Liberal vs. Republican †¢ Rousseau makes heroic and unreasonable assumptions about human nature. Why would we like to get together and engage in debate about political matters. †¢ Human nature and our capacity to engage in debate. Unless everyone is engaged in the process of legislation, there is no way to know that the laws are really an expression of my will. You will find yourselves dependent on the will of others. Freedom from dependence.Aristotle: reasoned approach – basic goal of politics was to help society achieve the good life, create a society that allows its citizens to prosper – humans are seen as â€Å"political animals† and thus politicas as a force of nature – citizens take place in politics, they are seen as the backbone of the state and have a responsibility to the state, – not all citizens are equal, but all want sovireign – good citizens not posses what it takes to be good man – polity= best form of government; the rich rule over the rest by knowledge and democracy king should not have all the power, he should be the guardian of the law – (has less power than plato and machs ruler) because of the seperation of powers; legislative, executive and juidical – less power and more mobility – CITIZENS; anyone can participate in politics (must participate) – By nature everyone has the capacity of reason and is able to participate in politics – Slaves are legit they are the means of production so that everyone else can participate in politics – Ruled by; virtue, moral and reason – Education: can change conslitation for progess because children are taught from young age to reason, (public learning) – Bartering=natural Aristotle- Politics Human beings are political animals. Problematic relation between economics and politics Role of labour and role of commerce The political community is de signed to promote human flourishing Happiness is a life of activity expressing virtue Essence of Political rule: ruling and being ruled The highest community is the political community Without law man is the worst of animals and law depends for its existence on the state.In order to meet our needs we must interact with nature to get the results we want. Work is a process, not an activity. Work is enslaving, provided by necessity Some people are fit for being slaves, others are fit for ruling. It is only natural that things are that way. Man is a political animal, that needs to live in a community. Trade is necessary, and therefore there is a need for a division of labour. Property is those goods need to develop their ability to develop a virtuous life Surplus has to be exchanged. Profit making is the pursuit of false wealth (capital)The Unconditionally best regime is the rule of the virtuous. Fundamental value of political community is friendship Aristotle criticizes Plato’s utopia, arguing that it gives too much unity to the state, and would make the state into an individual. A government is good when it aims at the good of the whole community, bad when it cares only for itself. Good Governments Bad Governments Monarchy Tyranny (Worse) Aristocracy Oligarchy Constitutional government (polity) Democracy (Least worse) Citizenship is defined by participation in office and in ruling. Political rule is mastery of free people ublic life is far more virtuous than the private Good citizen vs. good man Aristotle does not have a conception of an absolute good and has a more matrial account of morality. – rights Machiavelli: use deception and illusion for the better purpose of economic ends of the state – prince must be immoral opportunitst, people should never know the â€Å"real him†, but this creates a high risk of being seen as bad leader – overall the lead is not a good one because you cannot rule you people with immoral action â⠂¬â€œ ends justify means – goal of politics to maintain power and stability citizen must obey ruler and do as one told, no room for citizen participation in politics – equality does not exist – prince must be loved and feared – progress for the state = improving means of production (capitalism) Virtue: fortune/luck is half our actions – always appear virtuous – one capacity to understand political life and control it for the greater good of the state not for the sake of morality – priority of security over morality – price must be immoral when need be, to ensure the state security – generosity vs compassion – Machiavelli-Power A good ruler is not always good; he is good when he has to be but is cruel when the situation requires it. †¢ Leader or prince must have virtu: a set of qualities necessary to be a politician worthy of praise †¢ Learn to be able to not be good †¢ He attacks secular moralists a nd the Christian ideals of morality †¢ The prince must have courage to do whatever it takes to get what he needs. †¢ â€Å"Small evils to prevent greater evils† †¢ Political stability is a condition for a private moral life †¢ Domestic sphere is the domain of morality. †¢ Role of the state is to ensure security †¢ Prince must be a realist †¢ Acquisition of power is important How is power won, lost and maintained is the main focus of The Prince †¢ No traditional idea of â€Å"legitimate power† †¢ To achieve political ends, power is necessary. †¢ Fortuna, it is good to do whatever is required to obtain power. †¢ Appear to be good to the general public †¢ We admire the virtuous leaders †¢ No hard rules in politics, no political formulas †¢ Skill, assertive independence is necessary to have political power. †¢ People want power, mainly self interested †¢ Stability, is important †¢ Glory is not a bad thing, it is actually praiseworthy †¢ The Prince must try to master Fortuna as much as he possibly can Hobbes- Leviathan: The Sovereign is not the direct expression of individual rules but an abstraction of the natural desire to rule †¢ Hobbes wants us to abstain from politics by agreeing to be ruled by this artificial man or sovereign †¢ For by art is created the Great Leviathan, commonwealth †¢ Trade liberty for security †¢ Liberty under Hobbes’ sovereign is whatever is not restricted by law. †¢ Humans in the state of nature are in a constant state of war, everything belongs to †¢ Society and political community is artificial †¢ Human equality : in nature nobody is superior to another †¢ What makes authority possible? What is the source of authority?What makes legitimate authority possible? †¢ How can individuals who are biologically autonomous, who judge and see matters differently, who can never be sure whether they can trust one another, how can such individuals accept a common authority? †¢ That is the fundamental question of the social contract tradition. †¢ When is authority in question? True in Hobbes’ time of civil war †¢ Hobbes tells a story: he tells the story about something he calls the state of nature. Hobbes will always be associated with the idea of the state of nature. †¢ It is not the biblical account of Eden, nor is it a political condition like maintained by Aristotle. Sovereign’s main function is to make us equal †¢ The state of nature is not a condition of actual fighting, but a known disposition of actual fighting. †¢ His claim that the state of war is a condition that we are naturally in, is to say that nature does not unite us. If nature is a norm, it does not mandate us to peace, friendship and solidarity with others. Only art and human relations can bring about peace. †¢ Authority and relations are the product of cont rivance and art. – Plato: moral guidance, not legal obidence – philosopher king rule over all with rationality (rational part of soul rules over honor seeking and appeitive) must make the state a â€Å"utopia†; all work together for the common good of the state- seek harmony – children are all raised together and educated together – soverign is essential because it takes the best people in society and puts them in power – ruler acts as moral guider for other social classes – philosopher kings; determine justice and law because of their unique virtue (rationality) – each individual serves as a purpose in society, according to certain qualification (rationality, honor, appetite) that makes them more suited to a particular task (ruler, auxiliary, worker) without the philosopher king men fall pity to their desires and appeitiess(greed) – the state acts as a check for the passions of individuals – humans want what is i ntrinstically good, while they are capable of commiting wrong, this is because of some appetitie/desire rather than some flaw – there exists no equality, there is a social order in which you are born into – everyone is guided by the philosopher king beacuase they posses the ultimate truth, without them the normal person would not know how to act in socity and would fall prey to passions and selfishness humans want what is best, therefore listen to higher good – justice throught: strength, philosophy and doing good to friends Property: plato fails to identify population increase and other countries boundarys Plato- Republic: †¢ What is justice? Is it appearing just but really being unjust? Is it the rule of the strongest? †¢ Move away from ordinary definitions of justice. Perfect Justice vs. Perfect injustice †¢ The Necessary myths: religion. Myths are not true but they are helpful in a society to keep order. â€Å"Noble lie† †¢ Allegor y of the cave: The world of appearances is only a reflection of the pure realm of forms. The best life is the one spent contemplating the fundamental laws of the universe. †¢ The Philosophers must be kings, also called guardians. †¢ Their role is to overlook everything in society is working correctly, and in order to do this they must be philosophers. †¢ Rulers must live in commune, share everything in order that their desires are quenched and they can dedicate full attention to the city. †¢ We are born with natural aptitudes and we should become that to which our natural aptitude fits best. †¢ Perfect city: harmony and order †¢ Noble lie: Gold people are the most apt to lead and become guardians.Silver people are merchants and traders, and bronze people are craftsmen. People can only mate with a person of the same category. †¢ The skill of a guardian/ruler is similar to that of craftsman. The state is the guardian’s craft so he should be pr epared to deal with it appropriately. Democracy is cause of conflict because most people are not suited to rule or make political decisions. †¢ Mastery according to nature †¢ Justice: minding your own business. †¢ Women are not naturally inferior to men. †¢ The form of the Good is higher than justice, and requires extensive training to grasp it. Truth exists independent of time and space. †¢ Justice is a relation among individuals, depending on social organization; and that in consequence it can be studied better as part of the structure of a community than as a quality of personal conduct. †¢ Men are acquisitive, ambitious, competitive, and jealous by nature. †¢ Democracy ruins itself by excess of democracy. Its basic principle is the equal right of all to hold office and determine public policy. People are not properly equipped by education to select the best rulers and the wisest courses. †¢ To understand politics, we must understand psycho logy. Like man, like state† †¢ Human behavior flows from desire, emotion and knowledge. Desire, appetite, impulse instinct, these are one; emotion, spirit, ambition, courage another; finally knowledge, thought, intellect, reason, these are another. †¢ Statesmanship is a science and an art. Only a philosopher king is fitted to guide a nation. †¢ Education should be physical as well as intellectual, and musical. †¢ Justice is about organizing the political community so everyone can live the good life. †¢ Perfect organization of the city so each individual can develop his or her own nature †¢ Every individual is the product of the city People are slaves to their own desires †¢ Good life=contemplation †¢ The perfect ruler has knowledge of the Good, and designs all laws and institutions in according with the Good. †¢ What’s missing is a fundamental knowledge of the structure of the world. †¢ The confine of reality is own huma n nature. â€Å"City† Timocracy Love of honor, desire of treasure. Good=Honor Oligarchy Regime founded on Prosperity. Good=Money Democracy Rule by the multitude. Good=Freedom Tyranny Takes power, wages war, enslaves the people. Good=Desires of tyrant

The American Way: Courage, Pride, and Honor

The American Way: Courage, Pride, and Honor â€Å"These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country: but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. † These words, uttered by the great Thomas Paine on December 23, 1776, embody the true courage and sacrifice of the many American Patriots during the earliest stages of our country. It is words and ideals such as these that shaped and molded our country into the place we know it as today.As both an American citizen and student of US history, I believe that a man’s true character reveals itself in times of adversity. The leaders emerge and men and women of smaller fortitude weed themselves out, sometimes sooner rather than later. The early stages of our country were marked with great struggle and rebellion against the powers that kept us down. There has been struggle throughout the entire histor y of our country, and still is today, but not many quite like our struggle to gain independence and freedom.Our country made its first true attempt to gain independence from King George the III by declaring ourselves an independent nation free from any bondage to Great Britain. This led to the Revolutionary War, in which over 4,000 men gave their lives and another 6,000 were wounded, in the attempt to gain freedom for all Americans. General George S. Patton later explained what drove these men to go to any length for their country when he said, â€Å"The courageous man is the man who forces himself, in spite of his fear, to carry on.Discipline, pride, self-respect, self-confidence, and the love of glory are attributes which will make a man courageous even when he is afraid. † Thousands of men have died throughout the history of this country so that we may be able to live the life we live today, with nobody ruling us and the freedom to worship as we please, live how we please, and aspire to make the most out of ourselves in every aspect of life. Our country takes pride in the men and women who have given the ultimate sacrifice for their country, and hopefully we shall never be so foolish to forget the sacrifices made.We fly our flags at full height to remember these men, we celebrate independence day, and we celebrate veterans day because we need to remember the violence and adversity in order to appreciate the peaceful and prosperous lives we are able to live today. I’ve already spoken about the freedom fighters in the beginning of our time as a nation. However, many others have fought for freedom and equality in order to shape our nation into what it is today. The African-Americans had to fight in the 1960’s for equality.Imagine coming to Lackawanna College and whites and blacks drinking from separate water fountains and eating in different cafeterias. This would truly be a sad representation of the character of the average American man. Even before this the Irish immigrants were hated and discriminated against, but also the Italian and Polish immigrants. So many people have struggled and persevered for the better of our nation. I believe the American experience is one of courage, hardship, perseverance, freedom, and equality for any man who chooses to come here and pursue these ideals.John F. Kennedy described perfectly the importance of these beliefs and standards when he said, â€Å"Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear an burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty†¦ We dare not tempt them with weakness. For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that they will never be employed. †

Evolution of Management Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Evolution of Management Principles - Essay Example At the present, the work is supposed to be carried out by a basis of sharing and caring within the organization’s regimes which was not the case say two decades down the road. With the changing times, the business world has evolved and so have the different methodologies and the ways and means through which it is carried day in day out. One needs to realize the fact that business is a consistently changing world and in this world only the people who are ready to change are successful. Thus to put it in the related context, change is the only constant in the world and in the business scheme of things, changing to suit the will and desire of the customers and/or the stakeholders as well as doing one last bit to bring in more revenues and profits for the company just plays the right trick for the business to succeed both in the short term as well as in the long run. (Cyert & March, 1963) Organizations which stagnate over a period of time and do not change because of one pressure or the other usually die out quickly. The ones that have existed thus far have relied a great deal on the phenomenon attached with change and consistent upgrading of the needs as put forward by the business and its norms. Furthermore, the changing market structure might call for changing strategies and lines of action that would all target the people for whom the product is actually designed as well as the competitors with whom the clutter is being broken in the environs of the marketplace. Thus competition brings in more and more quality at the end of the company with regards to its products as well as more sales in the form of its varied and changed stance on focusing towards the customers rather than the product itself. Every big business or multinational that is existent in present times credits itself on to the vision of an exemplary personality which started it all when the going was tough and when there was a huge competition in the related

Darfur Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Darfur - Essay Example c warfare between the Sudanese central government and a number of insurgent movements since February 2003; these groups are demanding rights for the local peoples and more state investment in their marginalized region†. In other words, the main reason for the appearance and the development of violence in the state has been the opposition between the government’s decisions and the willing of the major part of the population. It should be noticed that the consequences of the development of this conflict have been severe. More specifically, it is noticed in the Africa Studies Centre (2007) that â€Å"at the start of the armed conflict, Darfur, which is the size of France, had a population of about 6 million (virtually all Muslims) but the number is significantly lower today due to mass killings, disease, famine and forced expulsions akin to ethnic cleansing caused by the ‘scorched earth’ military actions of the government troops and local militias; these milit ias, known as the ‘Janjawiid’, have been largely recruited from Arabized peoples from northern and eastern Darfur†. The main reason for the continuation of the above described situation cannot be precisely described, however it could be considered that the oppositions in interests of the state and those of the rebels is more likely to have led to this result. The development of the conflict in Darfur is described on a report of BBC News (2007) according to which â€Å"The conflict began in the arid and impoverished region early in 2003 after a rebel group began attacking government targets, saying the region was being neglected by Khartoum; the rebels say the government is oppressing black Africans in favour of Arabs; Darfur, which means land of the Fur, has faced many years of tension over land and grazing rights between the mostly nomadic Arabs, and farmers from the Fur, Massaleet and Zagawa communities†. In other words, it seems that the conflict in Darf ur has not begun because of a random initiative

Individual project 1 lab science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Individual project 1 lab science - Essay Example nd water occurs as a result of percolation processes that involve water movements from the surface into the inner profiles below the earths surface where it is banked in aquifers. Ground water sources are, however, exhaustible where infiltration rates are reduced beyond extraction rates. Case studies of four regions were sampled and used in this study to analyze various human activities taking place in four cities. Human activities such as; urban sprawl, industrialization, and the extent of deforestation were then observed, surveyed and compared with data from secondary resources. Population data was acquired form the population tallying units for the four regions and interpolated against human activities and groundwater properties. Geological surveys were then conducted to determine the quality and quantity of ground water in the four regions, and his data was as well compared to past literature records. Precipitation data was acquired from the meteorological records from eight meteorological stations in the regions. The population of the four regions had consistently increased from 1980- 2000. There was also a remarkable increase in the extent of human activities over the earth’s surface such as agricultural expansions, expansion in the sizes of urban centers found in these regions as well as the establishment of more of such. Precipitation data from meteorological surveys showed reduced precipitation amounts over the period included in the study. Ground water surveys revealed reduced quantities as well as lowered PH, increased acidity. Human activities and climate change and variability are the prime threats to the existence of underground water resources. Mans activities such as deforestation reduce the rates of water infiltration by increasing surface runoffs, as a result, the groundwater banks diminish in size in such regions. Moreover, other human activities such as industrialization and pollution (Pahl-Wostl, 2007) are very detrimental to groundwater

International Adoptions Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

International Adoptions - Research Paper Example Interracial adoptions have helped to adopt minority children, but have raised issues for adopted children to cope with being different and for adoptive parents to help them form healthy identities. The likelihood of being in foster care is more in the Black children as compared to the white children. Black children usually stay longer in the foster care and frequently experience multiple placements. Since long-term stay in the foster care brings along with it numerous developmental risks, certain strategies have been practiced in the past to reduce children’s stay in the foster care. Transracial adoption is one of these strategies but has acquired a lot of controversy because of its perceived effects on children’s healthy adjustment and psychological development in the long run. This is the main reason why transracial adoptions constituted only 1 per cent of all cases of adoptions in the year 1987 (McManus). Percentage of transracial adoption cases in the subsequent yea rs is also comparable. One of the earliest studies carried out on the subject of African-American children’s transracial adoption was by (Grow and Shapiro). In this research, a total of 125 cases of transracial adoptions were investigated. In these cases, the children had been, at least for three years, in their adopted homes. The research led to the conclusion that 77 per cent of the adoption cases were successful while the rest were unsuccessful. Cases in which the family and the child were found to be having problems were classified as unsuccessful. In 16 cases, racial identity was found to contribute to the problems of adjustment of the child in the family. In nine cases, the child was found to be experiencing conflicts regarding the racial identity and the parents were also found to be experiencing difficulty coping with the differences of racial identity. In five cases, the researchers found a strong tendency in the parents to deny the racial background of the child eit her through passive ignorance toward it or through minimization of its importance (Grow and Shapiro 102). This is even more dangerous for the children because the African-American child â€Å"must be prepared for being perceived often as a minority member first, an individual second and for being judged on the basis of prejudice and stereotype† (Crumbley). In the research by (Grow and Shapiro), most of the data was retrieved from the parents and teachers through interviews and questionnaires. Had significant part of the data been retrieved from the children, the researchers would probably have found even more unsuccessful cases and attributed them to conflicts of racial differences between children and parents. The dramatic decrease in the transracial adoption of the African-American children was observed over the last four decades because of its strong opposition by the National Association of Black Social Workers (NABSW) since the year 1972. Their concern was that interraci al adoptions makes the adopted children ill-equipped to deal with the racist society’s realities wherein they grow up. In 1985, the then NABSW president talked about the severe problems of identity in the African-American children that have been raised by white families. He said that these children have neither been completely accepted by their parents, nor have they been allowed to maintain the required contact with the people of their race because of which,

The theme of death in selected works of Edgar Allan Poe Term Paper

The theme of death in selected works of Edgar Allan Poe - Term Paper Example Some of the romanticism that has surrounded the history of Poe has created a mythology that is not fully supported by history. However, his stories do reflect the prevalence of death within his life, his construction of the dialogue about the subject placing it in a position of darkness and shadow. Poe wrote about death in such a way to express the theme through universal concepts that touched upon the fears of all human beings about the inevitable encounter they would have with death. Death The theme that will be discussed in this essay is death. Poe uses death as a central theme to most of his works as he relates stories that end in death, ponder death, or speak about crossing the boundaries that separate life from death. Poe has been analyzed for the psychological foundation for the themes from which he creates his work. Peeples states that â€Å"Theorists and critics quickly recognized the opportunities that Poe presented for psychoanalytical study, given his fiction’s em phasis on hidden motives and detection, altered states of consciousness, sadism, and obsession, as well as the self-destructive tendencies he exhibited in his own life† (Peeples 30). ... It may never be fully clear the extent to which his work is devised through literary intent and how much is reflective of a dark soul developed from the difficult events in his life. Poe is remembered as a morose drunk, lost in the laments of the loss of his wife, but he was not merely a gothic figure up in a darkened room penning out his tales of horror. Poe was actively seeking a literary career and intended to become a known author of his time. This can be understood by the activities he engaged in towards getting published. His work, â€Å"The Raven†, was his first published work which appeared in 1845 before he lost his wife in 1947 to tuberculosis (Bloom 46). It is a myth of literary history that it was written after she died and that he wrote it in his despair, maddened by alcohol and grief. It is a romantic notion, but it does not reflect the facts. When exploring the possible foundations for the work that Poe has created, some of the themes begin to emerge as reflecti ve of his personal experience. While the myth has taken aspects of his life and connected them in a way that has created an image of the man, his reality did provide a pool of resources from which to explore the theme of death and the many horrific connective themes from which his work was drawn. He approaches death through terror and horror, his stories built upon the predication that death has a connection to darkness. There is beauty in his horror, but little beauty in his death, his concepts built upon a romanticism that defines the experience of death as literary tragedy, a result of shadowed intent. In this exploration, one might surmise that the writer may

Difference between non-profit public sector administration and private Essay

Difference between non-profit public sector administration and private sector - Essay Example The terms of employment and leadership also determine the administrative structures in each. In the public sector, job security is high and despite poor performance, separation requires extensive documentation over a long period of time.The span of control is low, which also means more individuals to a particular task and we see that job security, stability, and sheer size of organizations tend to foster well-defined bureaucracies. Educational qualifications and political affiliations play a major role in the selection of those at the top, regardless of managerial capabilities. Forced to be competitive in order to survive, the private sector companies value efficiency over all else. They have little use for bureaucratic hierarchies.Corporate bureaucracies consist of performance-driven individuals, who function in situations of large spans of control.The number of people required to do a job is strictly monitored and adhered to, any excesses are trimmmed immediately based on optimum efficiency and job security is low. Managerial capabilities are usually the sole determining factors for high positions in a private sector organisation. Thus it is easier for an excellent performer to rise on the corporate ladder, whereas in the public sector, â€Å"seniority† is the determining factor. In other words, we might see an individual promoted purely on the basis of the fact that he or she has been in the organisation for a particular period of time, despite possible poor performance, while diregarding cases of good performance from more recent employees.

Question to answer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Question to answer - Essay Example n terms of effectiveness, managers in my organization use the budget process to strategize for the future since the cost of healthcare equipments and services is constantly changing as a result of uncertainties in the global market. Our organization is able to forecast on future costs of these equipments and therefore make financial plans to purchase them before the costs increase. To purchase these equipments, the managers must first understand cash flow within the organization in order to plan or budget on the basis of available funds. This is how my organization employs the concept of budgeting. I have observed that there is a disconnect between the managers and the employees in relation to budget formulation and implementation. The managers solely formulate the budget and then impart or confer it to the employees. In so doing, employees are not involved in the formulation process and hence they feel that their input is not needed within the organization. Achieving projected results from a budget is dependent on the employees as they are the implementers of action plans (Finkler, Ward and Baker, 2007). In our case, the purchase of new equipments is geared towards improving efficiency in the workplace and in the long run increase performance and patients satisfaction. The fact that employees are not involved in formulating the budget affects their motivation levels and job satisfaction and hence affecting the outcome of care practices. Engaging the employees in the budgeting process in terms of considering their input would greatly improve the process and also improve employ ees

Marketing of MonoSpace Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Marketing of MonoSpace - Case Study Example Hatala is contemplating the following issues: Political: 90% of Kone's sales come from international markets. This makes it very vulnerable to political stability in its global markets for example Italy is one of the markets of Kone and elevator regulations are governed in Italy by parliament. Thus , to bring MonoSpace i.e. an elevator without a machine room in compliance with standards , it would require an act by the parliament. Economical: The performance of elevator industry is directly proportional to the performance of the construction industry. The construction industry has maximum potential in developing countries rather than the developed countries. The reason for this is that the developed countries have maximized their growth potential whereas the developing countries would require heavy spending on construction to build malls, offices and other infrastructure. Thus, the most economically feasible regions for Kone products would be the less developed Asian and Australian markets as compared to the developed European and EU markets. Social: It can be argued that the MonoSpace elevators are a hard sell since it requires a unanimous decision of people from different backgrounds for e.g. the owner might be affluent and influential wanting perfection in the looks and features of the elevator, the contractor would be worried about the cost benefit analysis and the property developer would be thinking about the cost saving versus the benefit of space saved. Technological: elevator market is a technologically driven market. However, technology that is being applied is at the back office rather than on the consumer side. The consumer is only impressed by the ride comfort and speed of the elevator. The customer i.e. the owner investor or the property developer, contractor etc would be interested in the performance (maintenance cost, Hazards involved), initial investment and the space that is being used by the elevator machine room. This space is rendered useless for the owner since the elevators are using it. The reason behind the margin erosion phenomena is that the features directly impacting the customer (the owner, contractor and property developer) are similar by all the various competitors and there is not much differentiation in the end product. Gearless Traction Gear traction Hydraulic 10% 30% 60% Commercial Buildings High rise Less than 6 floors Low rise Legislative: In France, Kone had received approval only for ten installations. It can be deduced from this that having a machine room less elevator is a benefit provided to the customers however, it has widespread concerns and ambiguities and customers as well as the various governments would like to test the new MonoSpace product first for reliability before letting it be installed all over their regions. Environmental: Unlike the hydraulic elevators, which use two hundred plus liters of oil,

Online examination system Essay Example for Free

Online examination system Essay Symmetric key length, public-key key length, comparing symmetric and public-key key length, Key Management: (3 Lectures) Generating keys, transferring keys, verifying keys, using keys, updating keys, storing keys, compromised keys, lifetime of keys, destroying keys, public key management, Algorithm Types and Modes: (10 Lecture) Electronic codebook mode, block replay, cipher block chaining mode, stream ciphers, cipher-feedback mode, output feedback mode, choosing a cipher mode, block ciphers vs. tream ciphers, Choosing an Algorithm, Choosing an algorithm, public-key vs. symmetric cryptography, encrypting communication channels, encrypting data for storage, Security Models, Windows, Linux, Web, Cookies, Biometrics (gummy fingers), Tempest, Viruses, Firewalls, System/Comprehensive Security Analysis Text Book/s – Stallings, W and Brown, L. , Computer Security: principles and practice, 2nd edition, 2011 Reference Material – – William Stallings, Cryptography and Network Security, 4th Edition, 2005, ISBN-13: 978-0131873162 Kaufman, Perlman, Speciner, Network Security: Private Communication in a Public World, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002, ISBN-13: 978-0130460196 – Other books will be used in the course if necessary. Department Of Computer Science Information Technology, HIC Jauharabad Campus Instructional Aids/Resources Assessment Criteria Class Assessment 35% Quizzes and Test 15 Assignment and Presentations 10 Attendance and Class Participations 5 Assignments + Quizzes Mid 25% If Required: Final 40% If Required: Total 100%.

Effects of Globalization on Accounting Concepts

Effects of Globalization on Accounting Concepts Haiyan Lin Increasing global business competitiveness. Globalization results in more opportunity and threats, as well as more competition and customers for many countries and organisations. Business need to improve their competitiveness. To realize product differentiation and cost controlling or provide better products or services to customers, deliver responsiveness are most of firms goal. To realize business competitiveness goal led organisation to take new management accounting systems and techniques such as Activity-based cost systems and Activity-based budgeting systems. Activity-based cost system is more accurate to calculate the cost of goods, services, customers and other activity within organisation and also shareholder values, as well as business budgeting. Activity-based budgeting is also more accurate technique to forecast firms future costs and better benchmark to compare actual costs. (Langfiled-Smith, 2012) Raising global mobility of labour Globalization is also raising mobility of labour all over the world. Organisations especially as IT companies have more shortage in IT talent. So they are more possible to recruit employee from other countries. The famous case in New Zealand is Wellingtons BRING IT A WOLRD OF TECH TALENT TO WELLINGTON plan. Government support Wellingtons organisation to recruit world high tech talents which pay 100 candidates flight tickets and accommodation when candidates come to interview with their potential employers in Wellington. Increasing pressures for accountability, involving ethical and governance issues. Management accounting use techniques such as inventory management and time management to realize accountability. The inventory management is effective method to reduce supplier costs, manufacturing costs and production costs. Just-in-time philosophy is important inventory methods using in manufacturing, Toyota is famous example. Profession ethical codes need to be applied to accountant. As management accountants, they have obligation to themselves, their colleagues and their organisation to follow high standards of ethical codes. Increasing awareness of sustainability issues, especially climate change. Environment became worse when economic is developing fast. The most serious environment issue is global warming. So for sustainable global developing, many businesses try to use environment friendly materials or reducing CO2 emission and use of some other scarce resource such as water. Example: both Australia and New Zealand reduce or reduce greenhouse gas emission no more than 1990 levels. (Langfiled-Smith, 2012) Conclusion: Business environment will change continuality in the future, management accounting should be adjust, improve and develop new techniques, structure and systems all the time. Uses of information Management accounting: the users are internal users such as managers and employees at all levels. Managers need management accounting information to make strategies and decisions. Financial accounting: the users are external such as shareholders, creditors, bank, stock exchange, and government agencies. Banks use financial statements to decide whether to lend loan to the business; potential shareholders use financial statements to consider whether to invest in the business. Regulations Management accounting: there are no external rules or accounting standard. Managers generate information for the purpose of their management. Financial accounting: there are accounting standards and corporation laws to regulate the content of external financial reports such IFRS. Source of data Management accounting: the sources are come from both external and internal, as well as financial and non-financial data. The internal data is from physical and operational data from production systems. External data is from market, customer and economic database. Financial accounting: data almost from internal- organisations core transaction-based accounting system. Nature of the information Management accounting: subjective; relevant; timely; past, current and future-oriented; supplied for all level to satisfy managers needs. Financial accounting: not timely; not always relevant; past; reliable; highly aggregated. (Langfiled-Smith, 2012) Issues of privacy and ownership in the personal information industry. How to protect employees or customers privacy is important issue for the business. Business need to consider whether or not to reveal employees or customers information to the unrelated parties. For example: bank send their customers information to policies as policies requested but there was no permitted from their customer. The result was bank was sued by their customer. Issues of computer security refer to accuracy and confidentiality. Computer security systems are aim to prevent fraud and other unauthorised users to access the protected confidential database. However, the higher security system still can lead to other problems such as used to spy on legitimate users. For example: the secure computer system for Unitec, all students and staffs have their own account name and password to access to online Portal. It is more convenient for their work and study. Online Portal has their personal information such phone number, home address and passport copy. That is why portal need to separate student and staff login to protect student personal information from unauthorised person. The ownership of property. What can organization or individual own? Laws are designed to protect rights of ownership for properties, such as software. The question is whether individual and organisation should be restricted for using or access to this Intellectual property. For example: copyright laws protect those people who developed software from being copied. However, there is question whether copyright right or wrong, because many people believe there is more harm than good to have copyright laws. The problem is whether need to pay if to see or touch softcopy. The purpose of copyright laws is to encourage developing new software or arts, but in fact copyright may have opposite impact. Issues of equity access involving culture, economic status and safety. Example: if documents are prepared in one language and poor translated. Individual and organisation need to acquire technology equipment based on their economic ability. And the access of equity also need to consider safety of pregnant women or the minors. Environmental issues. It is easy to print because of computer and printer, however, print large amount of paper will result in disappear of tre Strategies: Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) and Section 406 require company to have ethical code applied to CEO, CFO and controller. Section 406 require ethical codes: The process to deal with conflict of interests. To provide full, fair, accurate, understandable and timely disclosure in documents and financial reports. Legal compliance: require employees to follow governments laws, rules and regulations. Organisations mechanism to report permit prompt ethical violations. Accountability: the ethic procedure should effectively take action when ethic violation appear. 1) Strategic planning Strategic planning is long term planning usually for three to five years, wide range and made by senior manager. Strategic planning is including corporate and business strategy decisions corporate strategy decisions are about the types of businesses or markets. Business strategy decisions are about how the businesses to realize their particular market. (Langfiled-Smith, 2012) 2) Operational planning Operational planning is short term planning, more details and narrow range than strategic planning and made by under senior managers. The main purpose for operational planning is to set detail process to complete their vision. 3) Linkage between strategic and operational planning Operational planning is process to make strategic planning come true. Every goal on operational planning should link one or more strategic planning, otherwise, there is no meaning of operational planning, and company will waste their time and resources. For example, if a manufacturing want to set second factory, their employees will spend more time in what it is not priority for their second factory if there is no strategic planning. References A. Hall, J. (2016). Accounting Information Systems. Bostan, MA, USA: Cengage Learning. Langfiled-Smith, K. (2012). Management Accounting: information for creating and managing value. Sydney, NSW 2113, Australia: Rosemary Noble. McDonnell, S. (n.d.). links between strategic and operational plans. Retrieved from Azcentral: http://yourbusiness.azcentral.com/links-between-strategic-operational-plans-25572.html

Hume and the Ethics of Virtue Essay -- Character Morals Aristotle Pape

I argue that Hume's ethics can be characterized as a virtue ethics, by which I mean a view according to which character has priority over action and the principles governing action: virtuous character guides and constrains practical deliberation. In a traditional utilitarian or Kantian ethics, character is subordinate to practical deliberation: virtue is needed only to motivate virtuous action. I begin by outlining this approach in Aristotle's ethics, then draw relevant parallels to Hume. I argue that virtuous character in Aristotle is understood in terms of "self-love." A true self-lover enjoys most the exercise of the characteristic human powers of judging, choosing, deciding and deliberating. A virtuous agent's self-love enables sizing up practical situations properly and exhibiting the virtue called for by the situation. But if an agent's character is defective, the practical situation will be misapprehended and responded to improperly. I argue that though Hume claims moral judgm ents are the product of sympathy, they are actually the result of a complex process of practical reflection and deliberation. Although Hume writes as though anyone can be a judicious spectator, there is reason to think that persons of calm temperament, who enjoy deliberation and have a facility for it, are more likely to perform the corrections in sentiments that may be necessary. If this is so, an agent's character has priority over his or her practical deliberations. I am interested in the general question of how to characterize Hume's ethics, in particular, in whether Hume can be seen to offer some version of a virtue ethics. Let me first explain what I take a virtue ethics to be. For a virtue ethics, the central question is: "What kind of perso... ... I follow the text of L. A. Selby-Bigge, 2nd ed., rev., ed. P. H. Nidditch, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1978. (9) I shall be concerned only with the Nicomachean Ethics (cited as "EN"). I follow the translation of Terence Irwin, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis, 1985. (10) For a more detailed discussion of this interpretation of akrasia, see my "Aristotle on the Conflicts of the Soul: Toward an Understanding of Virtue Ethics", in A. Reath, B. Herman, and C. Korsgaard, eds. (note 4, above). (11) I do not mean to deny here that the virtuous person engages in deliberation or that she has formed particular practical principles as a result of deliberation. Nor do I wish to deny that she deliberates properly, in contrast to her non-virtuous counterparts. I mean only to uncover the non-rational conditions that cause her and other agents' deliberations to be as they are.

The Importance of Diagnosing and Treating Inmates With Mental Illness

In the early and mid 1900’s the U.S went through a period know as deinstitutionalization, where patients in mental facilities were reintroduced into society. This action was sparked by the introduction of antipsychotic drugs and the lack of funding to house and maintain mentally ill patients. This was to help not only the financial restraints of the government but to help each of the patients within the facilities by giving them the ability to live a fulfilling life without confinement. In the last few decades changes in the United States judicial system such as mandatory prison sen ¬tences, longer prison terms, and more restrictive release policies have lead to an exponential increase in the number of inmates located within the jails and prisons. Currently, there are more than two million individuals incarcerated in the United States. Psychiatric illnesses within correctional populations are excessively higher compared with the general population. Currently more than half o f all in ¬mates have a diagnosis of a mental illness. Correctional facilities are legally obligated to diagnosis and treat the medical and mental health needs of the individuals committed to them. As a result, more psychologists and psychiatrists are practicing in jails and prisons. While the act of deinstitutionalization was to help people with mental illness live fulfilling lives it seems to have made a full circle back to institutionalization. This paper will discuss the view points of how the current system is inadequate in all areas and must have a complete overhaul so that mentally ill prisoners are not lost in the system, how the current U.S prison system adequately diagnosis and treats prisoners suffering from mental illness, and how the current system is... ...on is underdeveloped, funding for correctional facilities to house, diagnose, and treat inmates with mental illness is lacking, and finally the ratio of psychologists to inmates is such that there is a definite need for incentives so that psychologists are willing to work in such facilities. Works Cited Burns, K. (2011, February). Psychiatry behind bars: Practicing in jails and prisons. Current Psychiatry, 10(2), 15-20. Retrieved from http://www.currentpsychiatry.com/pdf/1002/1002CP_Article1.pdf Lamb, H. R. (2009, January). Reversing criminalization [Editorial]. American Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 8-10. Retrieved from http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/short/166/1/8 NCCHC (2008, August). Managing mentally ill inmates in prisons. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(8), 913-927 . Retrieved from http://cjb.sagepub.com/content/35/8/913.short#cited-by

Fighting for Equality and Freedom Essay -- American History Civil Righ

Across all nations and cultures, the enduring pursuit of equality in life seems global and timeless. Some would believe that their own country has achieved a true democracy with no residual inequalities of which to speak, while others know they are at the other end of the spectrum, enduring unjust laws that should not be bestowed on any human. Through the course of history many countries have fought for that democracy and all the equality that it implies. While some believe they have reached that goal, others continue to fight for the most basic human rights, even in this time of enlightenment. The journey each country takes on its road to that place may vary by origination, length, severity and outcome, but the goal seems to be the same. Looking at two such journeys through the writings of Martin Luther King, Jr. in his â€Å"Letter from Birmingham City Jail† and from an excerpt of Aung San Suu Kyi’s In Quest of Democracy, the underlying theme of equality is thoug htfully penned with examples universally recognizable from each of their own perspectives, respectfully acknowledging their own histories, religions, and obstacles to illuminate the path toward that common goal of a just society despite unjust laws. In â€Å"Letter from Birmingham City Jail,† King’s detailed writings demonstrate his understanding of the need to painstakingly explain his position to those controlling the unequal democracy under which he was being detained at that time. Even while writing of the history of his people as slaves, King skillfully avoids coming across as just another complainer, laying out the blunt truth as it was. He calls upon history to show that this never should have been in the first place, referencing the New Testament of the Bible ... ...rom suffering under unjust laws imposed by unfair rulers. Two people at different ages in their lives, different stages in their quests, of different histories and religions, one black, one Asian, one male, one female, with one goal for all. While Suu Kyi may one day be in a position to continue her fight, sadly the world lost King too soon. Their examples, as documented in their writings, of persistence, perseverance, and grounding in what is good and just for all mankind should be followed by all, to be benefited from by all. Works Cited King, Martin Luther, Jr. â€Å"Letter from Birmingham City Jail.† Reading the World: Ideas that Matter. Ed. Michael Austin. New York: Norton, 2007. 173-187. Print. Suu Kyi, Aung San. â€Å"From ‘In Quest of Democracy.’† Reading the World: Ideas that Matter. Ed. Michael Austin New York: Norton, 2007. 191-196. Print.

Is Lying Under Any Circustances “Righ or Wrong”

Based on the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, I would have to disagree with his argument that lying is wrong under any circumstances. In this paper I will discuss my reason for disagreeing with the argument based on the flaw stated in the argument, how lying and telling the truth both have bad consequences depending on the circumstances, and also how moral rules cannot be absolute. In this paragraph I will be discussing the flaw that is stated in the argument, in which I absolutely agree with.The philosophy that â€Å" Kant† is stating is completely flawed because it is contradictory on what he base his reasoning on. â€Å" Suppose it was necessary to lie to save someone’s life. Should you do it? Kant would have us reason as follows: We should do only those actions that conform to rules that we could will to be adopted universally. Second, if you were to lie, you would be following the rule ‘ It is okay to lie. ‘ Also this rule could not be adopted universally, because it would be self-defeating: People would stop believing one another, and then it would do no good to lie, therefore, you should not lie. (Immanuel Kant). The problem would show in step two, on why we would be saying if we lied that we would be following a rule that it is okay to lie, when as Anscombe stated if you changed it around to â€Å" I will lie when doing so would save someone’s life. † That would make that rule not be self-defeating. Ancombe's argument,shows that in order not to lie completely and prove Kant’s philosophy you have to show where lying would not have a good consequence behind it. But it clearly shows that depending on what you are lying for some lies can help more than hurt.Which leads me into my second point on how lying and telling the truth both has bad consequences. In Kant’s philosophy telling the truth leaves you blameless no matter what the outcome of the truth. And lying leaves you being held responsible for the out come no matter good or bad. This to me is not a good philosophy because you cannot be blameless if telling the truth gets someone killed, but lying helps save his or her life. Because you had to lie in order to save that person’s life does that make you less heroic? No. To me it shouldn’t matter as long as you did what you had to do to help hat person stay alive. A lie can have harmful consequences you can get someone hurt by lying: and saying that a person did something can get them fired from work. But you can also tell the truth about a person and her actions and still get her fired from work. Both have bad consequences and it doesn’t make that person feel any better about whether the outcome came from lying or telling the truth. And that shows how lies and truths both have bad consequences. A moral rule cannot be absolute to me because we don’t live in a society that makes decisions based on morals.Because there is some circumstances that make it hard to say that when this person lied it doesn’t matter that the outcome helped someone it was just a lie and nothing else matters. That is not the reality of things morally; you cannot let a person die and feel good about yourself just because you told the truth. Making a moral rule absolute would be contradictory to Kants philosophy, tell the truth no matter what; but morally, is it right to let someone that you can help with a lie fall by the waste side?You may have morally told the truth, but you also feel responsible morally no matter how righteous telling the truth may have been. If you ask me if a moral rule was absolute there would be terrible consequences to telling the truth and not lying in certain circumstances. If such dilemmas occur, then doesn’t this disprove the existence of absolute moral rules? Suppose, for example the two rules â€Å" It is wrong to lie† and â€Å" It is wrong to facilitate the murder of innocent people† are both taken to be absolute?The Dutch fishermen in Kant’s argument would have to do one of these things; therefore, a moral view that absolutely prohibits both is incoherent. (Immanuel Kant) In conclusion I feel that Kants philosophy as I stated in my thesis is flawed and I disagree with it completely. You cannot in my opinion say that as long as you tell the truth no matter what the consequences are would leave you blameless, if when telling a lie would help someone. But just because it is morally wrong to lie it doesn’t matter of that consequence you are still wrong even though lying saved that person’s life.If you ask me it would be morally wrong to let a person die and not do everything in your power to save that person. Which is why I don’t feel like a moral rule should be absolute and why in both circumstances of lying or telling the truth you really never know what outcome you are going to get. It is a choice that you make based on the situation that you are in, a nd even when telling the truth the outcome can still be bad. Kant had a good argument to me, but as the readings say it was â€Å"limited†. Works Cited Rachels, James ( 1941-2003) The Elements of Moral Philosophy